Effects Of Alcohol: Long-Term Effect And Short-Term Effect

Effects of alcohol refer to how the body reacts and adapts whenever someone consumes alcohol, whether it’s in small, moderate, or large amounts. These outcomes can occur in the short term or develop over time in the long term.

Long-term effects of alcohol represent ongoing, and sometimes lasting, outcomes resulting from continued drinking. These may involve increasing tension and challenges within relationships or with loved ones, trouble focusing, and issues related to mental well-being. Additional long-term outcomes include shifts in sexual interest and performance, reduced immune response, problems sleeping, appetite and weight fluctuations, liver conditions, cardiovascular disease, cancer, neurological impairment, and inflammation of the pancreas.

Short-term effects of alcohol are immediate changes someone notices after consuming alcohol. These are typically temporary but can become lasting if drinking continues unchecked. Typical short-term impacts of alcohol include relaxation or drowsiness, feelings of pleasure or increased excitement, elevated mood or cheerfulness, emotional shifts, reduced self-control, slowed speech, nausea and vomiting, acting as a gateway drug, difficulties with coordination, altered senses such as hearing and vision, headaches, diarrhea, and dehydration.

Treatment for alcohol use disorder or dependence involves short counseling sessions, as well as outpatient and inpatient programs, providing therapy and support to help individuals reach sobriety. These treatments offer a strong chance for successful recovery.

What are the short-term effects of alcohol?

Short-term effects of alcohol refer to the initial responses that happen right after drinking alcohol. As stated by Healthline, based on the potency of the beverage, these effects may begin within 10 minutes, even if the individual is not immediately aware of them. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the impact of alcohol in the short term varies with the quantity consumed, the frequency of drinking, age, general health, and family background. The following are the short-term effects of alcohol:

• Feelings of relaxation or sleepiness
• Experiencing euphoria or stimulation
• Increased cheerfulness or lightheadedness
• Emotional fluctuations
• Reduced self-control and social restraint
• Sluggish speech
• Experiencing nausea or vomiting
• Acting as a precursor to other substance use
• Impaired coordination and balance
• Altered senses including hearing, sight, and perception
• Onset of headaches
• Occurrence of diarrhea
• Loss of body fluids leading to dehydration

1. Feelings of relaxation or sleepiness

Feelings of calmness or drowsiness refer to a reduction in worry, stress, or anxiety and an increased sensation of sleepiness. Calmness is often described as a state of peace of mind, which people commonly seek through activities like meditation, yoga, prayer, deep breathing exercises, or relaxation techniques. In contrast, drowsiness is not typically a desired state and can be brought on by depression, stress, anxiety, medications, or certain drugs. Alcohol consumption can also trigger sensations of calmness or drowsiness.

These effects are considered short-term outcomes of alcohol use because alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system. By slowing down brain activity and its related processes, alcohol influences thinking, behavior, and mood. According to an April 2022 GoodRx Health article titled “Does Alcohol Reduce Stress? The Link between Drinking and Stress,” small amounts of alcohol can lead to relaxation and increased sociability. When stressed, many people may consume alcohol to experience these calming effects, though, according to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, this sense of calm is temporary.

The relaxed or calm feeling after drinking alcohol is linked to blood alcohol content (BAC), which measures the level of alcohol in the bloodstream after drinking. BAC can vary from 0% (no alcohol present) to 0.4%, a potentially life-threatening amount. The Cleveland Clinic notes that mood changes and enhanced relaxation tend to occur at BAC levels near 0.02%.

Drowsiness from drinking alcohol is due to its sedative and depressant action. Alcohol increases the activity of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which slows down both brain and body functions. As GABA activity rises, brain operations decelerate, leading to feelings of tiredness and sleepiness.

A February 2001 Alcohol Research and Health article titled “Sleep, Sleepiness, and Alcohol Use” found that for individuals who are not dependent on alcohol and only drink occasionally, both small and large quantities can initially improve sleep. However, higher amounts over time may actually cause sleep disruptions. This means that while alcohol can make a person feel drowsy for a short while, regular heavy use can worsen problems, potentially leading to insomnia-a topic covered later in this post.

Alcohol-induced drowsiness significantly increases the risk of injuries and accidents. Dr. B.S. Oken and M.C. Salinsky of Oregon Health and Science University highlighted in the September 2007 issue of Clinical Neurophysiology that alcohol is a leading factor in motor vehicle accidents. Their research also noted the combined effect of sleepiness and alcohol can create particularly dangerous circumstances for drivers. Drowsiness can also result from causes other than alcohol, such as insufficient sleep or health conditions like sleep apnea. According to a July 2016 Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine study by S. Garbarino and colleagues, higher BAC levels are closely linked to an increased tendency to fall asleep and may contribute to a greater risk of accidents on the road.

2. Experiencing euphoria or stimulation

A feeling of pleasure or excitement involves sensations of enjoyment, satisfaction, and a heightened state of joy or exhilaration. The experience of pleasure is primarily driven by the release of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, while both dopamine and serotonin contribute to feelings of excitement in the body.

Many different factors can produce pleasure and excitement, such as sexual activity, shopping, eating delicious food, playing sports, admiring beautiful sunsets, or getting tickets to see a favorite band. Consuming alcohol can also lead to pleasurable and exciting sensations.

Alcohol produces pleasure or excitement as a short-term effect by triggering the release of endorphins, which are chemicals associated with feeling good.

A study by J.M. Mitchell and colleagues, published in the January 2012 issue of Science Translational Medicine, explains how alcohol creates positive sensations like pleasure and excitement. The research found that the release of endorphins, which act similarly to opioids in the brain, is mainly responsible for these feelings. To demonstrate this, researchers gave 13 heavy drinkers and 12 control participants a drug that binds to opioid receptors, then had them consume alcohol and administered the drug again. Results indicated that endorphin release in the nucleus accumbens-a brain region involved in pleasure and reward-correlated with participants’ reports of pleasure.

All addictive substances, according to Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health (2016) by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and the Office of the Surgeon General, promote the feeling of pleasure, which strengthens their use and leads to repeated use.

Alcohol also boosts the production of dopamine, a neurotransmitter critical for the sensation of pleasure within the brain’s reward system. This was confirmed in a December 2015 paper, Alcohol-Induced Alterations in Dopamine Modulation of Prefrontal Activity. Harvard Health Publishing notes that a “dopamine rush” refers to the release of dopamine in response to stimulating events, such as drinking alcohol or using drugs. A review by R.A. Bressan and J.A. Crippa (Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum, 2005) further supports dopamine’s connection to pleasure and its motivational influence.

Dopamine is responsible for producing excitement as well, which is why people might feel more energetic or enthusiastic when drinking alcohol, though this sensation is only short-lived.

The link between alcohol, pleasure, and excitement also involves specific brain regions. The orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for coding pleasure, while the hypothalamus plays a role in various functions, including excitement. Alcohol particularly affects these parts of the brain. According to Dr. David E. Moorman’s paper from the University of Massachusetts Amherst (Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, December 2018), the orbitofrontal cortex is highly responsive to alcohol-related cues in drinkers.

Alcohol can also prompt neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus to release corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and arginine vasopressin, both involved in the body’s stress response pathways. CRF is a member of a neuropeptide family with receptors that play roles in arousal (excitement) and emotional states.

3. Increased cheerfulness or lightheadedness

A feeling of happiness or giddiness refers to a sense of well-being, contentment, and joy. Individuals experience happiness or giddiness when they feel a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. The ways these feelings present themselves can differ for each person, but the essential elements of happiness are maintaining emotional balance and life satisfaction, according to Very Well Mind.

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle identified two types of happiness: hedonia and eudaimonia. Hedonia is related to pleasure and arises from satisfying one’s desires or engaging in enjoyable activities, while eudaimonia comes from finding purpose and living virtuously. Happiness may be triggered by events such as a job promotion, spending quality time with loved ones, enjoying good food, or even as a short-lived effect of alcohol consumption.

Happiness or giddiness serves as a short-term effect of alcohol because alcohol boosts the release of neurotransmitters in the brain that generate positive feelings. When alcohol is consumed, the body increases dopamine production. Dopamine then acts on the brain’s reward centers, creating sensations of happiness, as explained by Alcohol Change UK. This is why the first few drinks can elevate mood and encourage ongoing drinking.

The association between alcohol consumption and increased happiness has been recognized for some time. For example, a paper by C. Baum-Baicker in the August 1985 issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence found that low to moderate alcohol intake enhances emotional expression, euphoria, feelings of carefreeness, and happiness. These effects do not extend to heavier, long-term alcohol use. Science Daily, in May 2016, reported research from the University of Kent indicating that while people may feel happier immediately after drinking, alcohol does not improve overall life satisfaction, a trend more noticeable with prolonged consumption.

Social contexts further influence alcohol’s effect on happiness. A review titled The Effects of Alcohol on Emotion in Social Drinkers, published in the January 2017 issue of Behaviour Research and Therapy, noted that individuals drinking in groups experienced primarily emotional improvements, such as reduced unhappiness. In contrast, those who drank alone reported mostly physical sensations like dizziness.

The happiness response originates in the limbic cortex, a network of structures including the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. As described earlier, alcohol has an effect on the hypothalamus and can also impact the hippocampus, sometimes resulting in memory blackouts. Furthermore, alcohol stimulates the limbic cortex by activating the dopaminergic reward pathway, as outlined by Psych Scene Hub (2020), helping explain why alcohol can briefly induce happiness or giddiness.

Another neurotransmitter, serotonin, also contributes to happiness. When serotonin levels are balanced, people tend to feel happier and more emotionally steady. Acute alcohol use increases brain serotonin levels, as highlighted in the paper Serotonin’s Role in Alcohol’s Effects on the Brain from the February 1997 issue of Alcohol Health and Research World.

4. Emotional fluctuations

Alterations in mood, commonly referred to as mood swings, involve abrupt shifts in emotional state. An individual might feel cheerful one moment, only to quickly transition to sadness or anger the next. These fluctuations are a regular aspect of life. According to Medical News Today, frequent causes include significant life transitions, heightened stress or feeling overwhelmed, premenstrual syndrome, lack of sleep, poor nutrition, and the use of medications that impact emotion or sleep. Alcohol can also play a role in causing mood swings.

Mood changes are a short-term effect of alcohol because alcohol consumption triggers chemical imbalances in the brain. While alcohol initially acts on brain regions responsible for inhibition and triggers positive emotions like happiness, these chemical changes can soon result in negative emotions. Such unpleasant feelings may include anger, irritability, or depression. As a depressant, alcohol influences the central nervous system and alters neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin. Although alcohol may cause an initial uplift in mood, a downward shift toward irritability or low mood often follows, since levels of these neurotransmitters drop back after a temporary increase, as described by Ireland’s HSE public health service.

Alcohol acts as a mood regulator, particularly among individuals susceptible to anxiety. However, these mood-modulating properties can promote drinking and potentially contribute to ongoing consumption. The short-term impact of alcohol on mood helps explain why some people turn to alcohol as a coping mechanism, as discussed by S.M. Gorka et al. in the April 2017 edition of Drug and Alcohol Dependence.

Dr. Rajita Sinha of Yale University School of Medicine explains in her article from the January 2022 issue of Alcohol Research: Current Reviews that consuming one or two standard servings of alcohol produces stimulating and energizing effects, often linked to increased social interaction and feeling more lively. However, consuming larger quantities stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to a rise in the stress hormone cortisol. Alcohol also activates brain pathways involved in emotion and stress, including the amygdala, especially in stressful situations. These physiological reactions can cause a rapid shift from positive to negative mood, such as moving from happiness to irritability.

S.K. Blaine et al. noted in the March 2016 Canadian Journal of Psychiatry that alcohol use has long been associated with higher levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, and norepinephrine-all of which can impact mood. Additionally, acute alcohol consumption interacts with the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which regulates sex hormones like testosterone in the bloodstream. These hormones contribute to the release of neuroactive steroids, which are hormone metabolites that can directly affect neural tissue and strongly influence the neurotransmitter GABA. GABA plays a role in managing stress, anxiety, and fear. Through these stress pathways and emotion-regulating regions, alcohol leads to mood swings and changes in behavior. Notably, any positive mood effects from alcohol are temporary, and ongoing alcohol use can result in mental health complications, some of which are addressed later in this post.

5. Reduced self-control and social restraint

Lowered inhibitions refer to a decreased level of self-consciousness. According to the Psychology Dictionary, inhibition involves holding back impulses and desires, which can occur both consciously and unconsciously. For example, a person might consciously restrain the urge to challenge others, whether friends, coworkers, or individuals online. Conversely, being unable to assert oneself or engage in confrontations often points to unconscious inhibition.

A review titled "Inhibition of Action, Thought, and Emotion: a Selective Neurobiological Review," published in the December 2007 issue of Applied and Preventive Psychology, highlights inhibition as a fundamental concept in psychology since much of effective behavior relies on it. Concentrating on tasks requires suppressing distractions, and making adaptive decisions involves inhibiting automatic responses. While a lack of inhibitions can be linked to certain mental health conditions or efforts to feel less self-conscious, alcohol use is a major contributing factor.

Alcohol causes lowered inhibitions as a short-term effect because it functions as a depressant. It suppresses activity in the brain’s cerebral cortex, thereby slowing down how sensory information is processed. According to DrinkWise, this results in diminished inhibitions and reduced clarity of thought.

In the August 2010 issue of Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, M. Field and colleagues found that alcohol impairs inhibitory control and influences automatic alcohol-related thoughts, such as attentional biases and implicit associations. Intoxication from alcohol affects mood, psychomotor skills, and cognitive abilities. Notably, impairment in inhibitory control can occur even at alcohol levels that do not seriously impact overall cognitive function. Alcohol lowers inhibitions not only in terms of movement but also by increasing impulsive behaviors. Their research suggests that a moderate dose of alcohol, reaching a BAC of 0.06%, can impair inhibitory control. This relates to the alcohol priming effect, which is when initial alcohol consumption leads to increased desire for further drinking. J. Weafer and Mark T. Fillmore, in a December 2008 Psychopharmacology clinical trial, also confirmed the link between suppressed inhibitory control and elevated alcohol-seeking behaviors.

Field et al. also describe the myopia model, which argues that alcohol narrows attentional focus so that dominant cues take precedence while less obvious cues are overlooked. This model illustrates how, under the influence of alcohol, people may ignore peripheral signals that would otherwise help prevent risky behaviors.

Researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine reported that even low doses of alcohol can disrupt communication between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. This disruption helps explain why inhibitions decrease during intoxication, as individuals become less able to interpret emotional cues or recognize threats, as found in a report on the university’s UIC Today site in August 2013.

Lowered inhibitions are closely linked to impulsivity. A.M. Herman and T. Duka discussed in the November 2019 issue of Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews that impulsivity and alcohol use influence each other. Impulsivity can increase the likelihood of starting alcohol use, while acute intoxication or long-term abuse promotes impulsive actions. Alcohol use is also associated with risk-taking behaviors-such as driving under the influence, drinking to the point of blackout, heightened aggression, unsafe sexual activities, and decisions that result in injuries-as detailed by S.J. Johnson et al. in the May 2021 issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.

6. Sluggish speech

Sluggish speech, also called dysarthria, refers to difficulty or weakness in controlling the muscles responsible for speech. Other terms for sluggish speech include mumbling and slurred speech. This type of speech is slow and can be hard to understand. According to the Mayo Clinic, common causes of sluggish speech include neurological disorders, certain medications, and conditions that weaken the muscles of the face, throat, or tongue. Stroke, brain injury or tumor, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis are well-known causes. Speech problems can also lead to depression and social challenges. Alcohol is another factor that can produce sluggish speech.

Alcohol can cause sluggish speech as a short-term effect because it slows brain activity and disrupts communication between the brain and the body. A paper by David B. Pisoni and Christopher S. Martin in the August 1989 issue of Alcoholism, Clinical, and Experimental Research noted that alcohol changes speech patterns, which are often noticed by both law enforcement and bartenders as signs of motor impairment due to intoxication. Alcohol use can lengthen response time, especially for less common words, and as blood alcohol concentration rises, speech amplitude decreases. Alcohol also increases errors in sentence construction, word use, and pronunciation, particularly affecting phonemes like /r/, /l/, /ts/, /s/, and /ʃ/. Alcohol slows down speech, reduces its volume, and leads to more negative perceptions during subjective assessments.

The Cleveland Clinic reports that slurred speech, slower thinking, and delayed reactions typically appear at blood alcohol concentrations of 0.10%. At these levels, alcohol hampers tongue coordination, making speech sound slurred or unclear. Heavy drinking can cause people to omit, alter, or break up words while trying to coordinate their speech so others can understand them.

Alcohol exerts its effects partly by acting on GABA. Low GABA levels make neurons fire rapidly, but elevated GABA slows neuron firing. When GABA increases significantly, it becomes challenging for the brain to process messages to the body, resulting in slower movements, altered time perception, and slurred speech. Alcohol also suppresses glutamate, a neurotransmitter that typically boosts alertness and energy, contributing to the sedative effect on speech.

Additionally, alcohol impacts Purkinje neurons, which are involved in muscle coordination and memory. These neurons are found in the cerebellum, a region affected by alcohol. Purkinje neurons help turn repeated actions into muscle memory, and Michael D. Forrest’s April 2015 paper in BMC Neuroscience concluded that alcohol disrupts motor coordination by affecting these cells.

While the cerebellum only represents about 10% of brain volume, it contains around 50% of all neurons, according to Psychology Today. This makes alcohol’s effect on the cerebellum a clear cause of slurred speech.

Alcohol may also influence Broca’s area, the brain’s primary motor speech region, which governs breathing and vocalization needed for speech. Broca’s area is situated in the inferior frontal gyrus. Although research on alcohol’s direct effects on Broca’s area is limited, alcohol’s impact on the frontal lobe is recognized in the pamphlet "How Alcohol Affects the Brain" by the Talk2Prevent program in New York State.

The impact of alcohol on speech is generally short-lived, but repeated or excessive use can result in lasting speech issues.

7. Experiencing nausea or vomiting

Feeling vomiting and nausea involves a forceful expulsion of stomach contents and a sensation of queasiness with the urge to vomit. It’s important to note that nausea does not always result in vomiting. The causes for both symptoms are often similar and can include motion sickness, early stages of pregnancy, severe pain, stress, food poisoning, indigestion, unpleasant smells or odors, and exposure to chemicals and toxins, as stated by the Cleveland Clinic. Alcohol consumption is also a common factor that can trigger nausea and vomiting.

Nausea and vomiting are short-term effects of alcohol because alcohol irritates the stomach lining. This irritation leads to the build-up of stomach acid, causing the sensation of nausea, which can then progress to vomiting. Vomiting also occurs as a protective reflex, allowing the body to expel toxins such as acetaldehyde, a byproduct of alcohol metabolism that can damage tissues, according to the paper “Overview: How is Alcohol Metabolized by the Body?” from the April 2006 issue of Alcohol Research and Health.

When only a small amount of alcohol is consumed, the liver neutralizes acetaldehyde using glutathione. The body processes these substances effectively, and symptoms typically do not occur. In cases of excessive drinking, however, the liver cannot produce enough glutathione to keep up with acetaldehyde production. When this happens, the body recognizes the overload and resorts to vomiting to eliminate the excess toxin, as explained by Healthline. Another job of the liver is converting acetaldehyde into acetate, which the body can then remove as water and carbon dioxide. If acetaldehyde accumulates due to heavy alcohol intake, the liver becomes overwhelmed, leaving vomiting as the alternative route for elimination.

Nausea and vomiting related to alcohol use can also indicate alcohol poisoning, according to Medical News Today. Alcohol poisoning is a dangerous condition that can occur when someone consumes excessive alcohol in a short time and requires urgent medical attention.

The Cleveland Clinic notes that nausea and vomiting may occur at a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.15%. At BAC levels between 0.15% and 0.30%, individuals may also experience drowsiness alongside vomiting. While these are typically short-term effects, chronic alcohol use can lead to lasting gastrointestinal issues and compromise digestive health.

8. Acting as a precursor to other substance use

A gateway drug is a substance whose use may increase the likelihood of progressing to and potentially becoming dependent on more harmful drugs. Typically, gateway drugs include widely accepted substances such as tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis. The gateway drug hypothesis suggests that using a particular substance can raise the risk of developing an addiction to more dangerous drugs. Although marijuana is often cited as the most recognized gateway drug, alcohol fits this classification as well.

Alcohol is considered a gateway drug as a short-term effect because individuals who drink are more prone to try other substances, including cannabis, seeking to match or amplify the positive sensations experienced with alcohol.

A study titled "Alcohol as a Gateway Drug: a study of US 12th Graders" published in the August 2012 Journal of School Health found that alcohol served as the gateway drug. Results showed that alcohol use led to increased use of marijuana, tobacco, and illicit drugs; students who consumed alcohol were more likely to use both legal and illegal substances.

Another study by S. Nkansah-Amankra and M. Minelli in the December 2016 issue of Preventive Medicine Reports indicated that cigarette smoking, drinking alcohol, and using illegal drugs were all linked to higher risks of marijuana and illicit substance use. Early exposure to cigarettes and alcohol correlated with future use of illegal psychoactive drugs, and moderate or heavy adolescent drinkers were more likely to use cocaine later on. Research by L. Degenhardt et al. in the April 2010 issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence also showed that cannabis use is often preceded by alcohol and tobacco consumption.

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, gateway drugs like alcohol prime the brain to respond more strongly to other substances such as marijuana. This pattern helps explain why alcohol is commonly used before more dangerous drugs like heroin. The CDC also notes that people who misuse alcohol are twice as likely to use or become dependent on heroin.

9. Impaired coordination and balance

Coordination problems involve difficulties with controlled movement due to issues with muscle regulation. Individuals experiencing impaired coordination find it challenging to move smoothly or think clearly, sometimes appearing disoriented or losing their balance. Various health issues can cause coordination problems, including vitamin deficiencies, brain infections, head injuries, potent medications, and alcohol consumption.

Alcohol causes coordination problems as a short-term effect because it disrupts the brain's communication pathways and impairs normal brain functioning. These disruptions make it harder for a person to move in a coordinated manner.

According to research by E.V. Sullivan et al. in the February 1995 issue of Alcohol Health and Research World, lack of motor coordination in those who consume alcohol is often linked to damage in the cerebellum. Another study by T. Brumback et al. in the November 2007 issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence found that acute alcohol intoxication hinders psychomotor skills, reducing performance on tasks like tapping, tracking, reaction time, and body stability. The complexity of the task affects how sensitive it is to alcohol, with more challenging tasks being impaired at lower alcohol levels than simpler ones.

This loss of coordination is connected to alcohol’s impact on the neurotransmitter GABA. Alcohol increases the inhibitory effects of GABA, leading to slowed movements and reaction times, which in turn cause clumsiness and loss of coordination.

Alcohol use can impair hand-eye coordination, balance, gait stability, and the ability to perform quick actions. While these problems are usually short-term, long-term alcohol use can make them persistent. Even after achieving sobriety, people with a history of alcohol use disorder may still face a higher risk of falls due to ongoing issues with balance and gait, as noted by E.V. Sullivan et al. in the January-February 2010 issue of Alcohol Research and Health. S. Hiller-Sturmhofel and H. Scott Swartzwelder also confirmed in the April 2004 issue of the same journal that alcohol hinders performance on tasks requiring balance and motor coordination, like standing still or walking straight. The cerebellum is primarily responsible for motor coordination. Interestingly, adolescent brains, which are still developing, might be less affected by alcohol in terms of coordination problems compared to adults, though further research is needed.

Coordination problems due to alcohol increase the likelihood of injuries, and this risk may be heightened when combined with alcohol-induced drowsiness.

10. Altered senses including hearing, sight, and perception

Changes in hearing, vision, and perception refer to alterations in the senses and in how someone interprets their environment. Hearing can be affected by factors besides aging, such as loud environments, illness, or certain medications. Vision may be influenced by sun exposure, excessive screen time, overuse of eye drops, smoking, stress, medications, and contact lens use. Perception is shaped by culture, expectations, motivation, and emotions. Alcohol can impact all three areas-hearing, vision, and perception.

Alcohol causes short-term changes in hearing, vision, and perception by acting as a depressant that slows down brain activity and communication pathways. After alcohol consumption, there is an increase in blood flow to the inner ear, which can lead to tinnitus or ringing in the ears. While alcohol-related tinnitus is typically temporary, ongoing heavy drinking may cause lasting damage. Alcohol is also associated with "cocktail deafness," a form of noise-induced hearing loss that occurs in loud settings while drinking; this condition is usually reversible, as described by Hearing Doctors.

Chronic alcohol use may cause shrinkage of the auditory cortex, the brain region responsible for sound processing. Reduced auditory cortex volume makes it harder to interpret sounds. This risk exists even for people who drink alcohol moderately, not just those who binge drink or consume large amounts.

A study by T. Upile et al. in the September 2007 issue of BMC Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders, found that alcohol reduces sensitivity to lower sound frequencies, particularly around 1000 Hz, which is essential for understanding speech. Alcohol can disrupt the auditory threshold both peripherally, through direct effects on the ear, and centrally, by affecting the processing of sounds in the brain. Even moderate drinking may affect auditory processing in challenging listening situations.

Heavy alcohol use can harm inner ear hair cells, making it harder for sound to reach the brain and causing permanent hearing issues. This highlights the potential dangers of alcohol for hearing health.

Alcohol can also impair vision, even at moderate levels. Signs of alcohol intoxication include blurred vision, strange eye movements, changes in color perception, and increased sensitivity to light. These effects are typically short-lived and result from alcohol’s influence on the central nervous system, according to Medical News Today. S. Karimi et al., in the April-June 2021 issue of the Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research, reported that abnormal eye movement is a hallmark of alcohol intoxication. Long-term, heavy use may lead to serious vision problems like acute optic neuropathy.

A study by J.B. Santana Silva et al., published in October 2017 in PLoS One, showed that moderate alcohol use can change eye movement, likely due to alcohol’s effect on GABA-the neurotransmitter involved in both general brain inhibition and visual processing in the retina and visual cortex.

Frequent binge drinking is closely linked to visual impairment, as noted in research by S. Young Han et al. in the February 2022 issue of Nutrients. The authors suggest that alcohol-induced oxidative stress may contribute to this impairment.

Alcohol also narrows peripheral vision (tunnel vision), making driving or responding to lights and hazards especially dangerous for those under its influence.

Alcohol consumption alters how a person perceives reality and the world around them. Person perception involves categorizing others, interpreting behaviors, and making social predictions. A clinical trial by B.D. Bartholow et al. in the October 2003 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology found that alcohol impairs person perception by altering how people process emotional information. People under the influence may overestimate or underestimate time, with this distorted time perception becoming more pronounced during cognitively demanding tasks, as noted by F.M. Nuyens et al. in the August 2021 issue of Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. These perceptual changes stem from alcohol’s depressive effects on the brain and its processing of information and stimuli.

11. Onset of headaches

Having a headache refers to experiencing pain in the head or face, which might feel like pressure that is throbbing, sharp, dull, or steady. Headaches can appear slowly or suddenly and may affect either one or both sides of the head.

Mayo Clinic explains that headaches are categorized as either primary or secondary. Secondary headaches are symptoms or consequences of various conditions such as concussion, brain tumor, dehydration, panic attack, stroke, or hangover. In contrast, primary headaches are caused by overactivity or problems in pain-sensitive structures in the head. Although headaches can be bothersome and distressing, they are generally manageable. Alcohol consumption is one notable trigger.

Headaches occur as a short-term effect of alcohol due to its diuretic nature, which can result in dehydration. Alcohol leads to increased urination, making dehydration more likely, and dehydration itself is a known cause of headaches, as detailed in the paper "Dehydration and Headache" in the July 2021 issue of Current Pain and Headache Reports. This is why even a modest amount of alcohol can bring on a headache.

Furthermore, alcoholic beverages contain ethanol, a chemical that acts as a vasodilator, meaning it widens blood vessels. Vasodilation can result in painful headaches and migraines, particularly among those who are already susceptible. Alcohol also contains congeners, substances known to provoke migraines, and some drinks like red wine include histamine, which can cause vascular headaches.

Dr. Alessandro Panconesi, in an article from the April-June 2016 Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice, noted that both the vasodilating and inflammatory effects of alcohol may be responsible for headaches, especially in individuals prone to migraines.

Headaches and other hangover symptoms, such as nausea and vomiting, may also be linked to the buildup of acetaldehyde. When the body cannot efficiently process and remove acetaldehyde, it accumulates, which can cause headaches and even vomiting.

12. Occurrence of diarrhea

Having diarrhea is characterized by passing loose, watery stools at least three times a day. Diarrhea may be acute or chronic and can occur alone or alongside other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Causes include viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections, medications like antibiotics, lactose intolerance, artificial sweeteners, surgeries such as partial removal of the intestine or gallbladder, and digestive conditions like Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and celiac disease. Alcohol is also a contributing factor.

Alcohol causes diarrhea as a short-term effect by inducing inflammation and irritating the digestive system. When alcohol enters the gastrointestinal tract, it can cause inflammation, leading to excess acid production and further irritation, all of which increase the likelihood of diarrhea.

Alcohol interferes with the large intestine's ability to absorb liquids from stool before elimination, causing loose stools and increasing the risk of dehydration. Additionally, alcohol can accelerate digestion due to its stimulating effects on the digestive tract. This causes the muscles in the colon to contract more often, pushing stools out faster than usual, which results in diarrhea as the intestines are not able to properly digest food.

According to Medical News Today, another way alcohol leads to diarrhea is by upsetting the gut’s bacterial balance. Alcohol disrupts the gut microbiota, killing off both beneficial and harmful bacteria and contributing to digestive problems like diarrhea.

Beer is especially likely to cause diarrhea because it is higher in carbohydrates than other alcoholic beverages, and the body struggles to break down these excess carbs while processing alcohol.

A paper titled "Alcohol-Related Diarrhea" from the April 2000 issue of Addiction Biology states that diarrhea is a frequent complaint in both acute and chronic alcohol users. Acute inflammation, erosions, and small blood vessel changes are often observed in the stomach and small intestine after heavy drinking. Alcohol use can inhibit the absorption of nutrients and fluids, and stimulate secretion of electrolytes and water, leading to diarrhea. The negative effects of alcohol on the central nervous system are thought to produce similar results in the enteric nervous system, which controls digestive organ function, affecting how food moves and is processed.

Alcohol consumption can damage the digestive tract lining, weaken the gut’s immune defenses, and increase the passage of toxins into the body. It can also interfere with digestion, absorption, and secretion, all of which contribute to diarrhea and limit nutrient delivery, as discussed in the review "Effect of Alcohol Consumption on the Gut" from the March-April 2005 issue of Digestive Diseases.

13. Loss of body fluids leading to dehydration

Dehydration occurs when the body loses more fluids than it takes in, resulting in an insufficient amount of water and electrolytes for normal functioning. Typical causes of dehydration include diarrhea, vomiting, excessive sweating, fever, and increased urination. If not addressed, dehydration can lead to severe complications such as seizures, kidney and urinary issues, and hypovolemic (low blood volume) shock. Alcohol consumption is also a cause of dehydration.

Dehydration emerges as a short-term effect of alcohol because alcohol acts as a diuretic, prompting excessive urination. This increased urine production leads to a loss of essential fluids and electrolytes. Alcohol-related dehydration is influenced by several factors, including drinking on an empty stomach, reduced appetite, and impaired kidney function.

Consuming alcohol on an empty stomach allows it to enter the bloodstream quickly, bypassing slower absorption in the stomach and small intestine, which increases the risk of dehydration. Appetite suppression during drinking further accelerates alcohol absorption, as food intake decreases. Alcohol also disrupts the kidneys' ability to filter blood and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance. Additionally, alcohol inhibits vasopressin, an antidiuretic hormone responsible for regulating water reabsorption by the kidneys. With reduced vasopressin activity, the body retains less fluid, resulting in increased urination, as described by Medical News Today.

A study by K.C.M.M. Polhuis et al. in the July 2017 issue of Nutrients verified that alcohol consumption raises urine output and contributes to dehydration. This acute diuretic response is tied to the alcohol concentration in the beverage. Another paper, “Alcohol’s Impact on Kidney Function” in the January 1997 Alcohol Health and Research World, noted that urine production can begin within 20 minutes of alcohol intake.

Alcohol-induced vomiting further exacerbates dehydration. Additionally, dehydration increases the likelihood of developing headaches.

What are the long-term effects of alcohol?

Long-term effects of alcohol refer to consequences that persist over extended periods, such as months or years. These outcomes result from heavy or prolonged alcohol consumption and are typically enduring or chronic, rather than brief or reversible. Because of this, long-term effects of alcohol can be severe and significantly diminish an individual’s quality of life and overall wellbeing, particularly for those struggling with alcohol use disorder. The long-term effects of alcohol include:

• Heightened conflict and stress in romantic and family relationships
• Difficulty concentrating
• Mental health issues
• Alterations in sexual desire and function
• Impaired immune system
• Insomnia
• Fluctuations in appetite and weight
• Liver disease
• Heart disease
• Cancer disease
• Brain damage
• Inflammation of the pancreas

1. Heightened conflict and stress in romantic and family relationships

Heightened conflict and stress in romantic and family relationships involve frequent disagreements and tension with loved ones, often stemming from concerns about an individual’s drinking habits. Maintaining healthy romantic and family bonds is essential for overall quality of life and mental wellbeing. These relationships can be influenced by a variety of issues, including dishonesty and alcohol misuse.

This becomes a long-term effect of alcohol because ongoing denial and impaired functioning make it difficult for individuals to participate effectively in relationships. Partners or family members commonly voice concerns and encourage those struggling with alcohol to seek help or stop drinking. Nonetheless, individuals with heavy alcohol use often deny the existence of a problem, leading to increased stress and decreased quality of life for everyone involved.

Heavy drinking is linked to lower relationship satisfaction, higher risk of marital distress, and more frequent negative interactions between partners, as described by A. Khaddouma et al. in the January 2016 issue of the Journal of College Student Development. Increased stress from hazardous alcohol consumption is a primary factor in reduced relationship quality. Those engaging in heavy drinking are more likely to participate in risky behaviors, such as intimate partner violence, drug use, or driving under the influence, which endangers both themselves and their loved ones. This can undermine relationship stability. Concerns about alcohol use may also trigger frequent arguments and negatively impact partners. Additionally, individuals who drink heavily are less likely to take steps to improve their relationships.

Alcohol contributes to relationship stress by increasing the likelihood of domestic violence. This association has been confirmed by D. Gadd et al. in the September 2019 issue of The British Journal of Criminology. R. Mayshak et al., in the February 2022 issue of the Journal of Interpersonal Violence, found that 24% to 54% of family and domestic violence cases reported to police in Australia involved alcohol. Alcohol-related incidents were twice as likely to result in severe physical harm and life-threatening injuries compared to other causes, and these situations also carried a higher risk of repeat offenses.

Relationship conflict and stress resulting from alcohol use may become so severe they lead to family breakdown or divorce. S.B. Scott et al., in the June 2013 issue of Couple and Family Psychology, found that among 52 participants, 34.6% cited substance abuse as a reason for separation, especially when the partner refused to acknowledge or address the problem. Research by K. Gravningen et al. in the March 2017 issue of PLoS One identified drinking, drugs, gambling, persistent conflicts, financial problems, and domestic violence as major reasons for divorce.

Heavy drinking also disrupts family dynamics and can have negative repercussions on children, who face a higher risk of developing alcohol problems themselves. Moreover, the stress and conflict in relationships due to alcohol misuse extend beyond denial, and may include financial difficulties, poor money management, and accumulating debt, all of which increase strain on relationships.

2. Difficulty concentrating

Difficulty concentrating is marked by challenges in thinking clearly, staying focused on tasks, or maintaining attention. Strong concentration helps individuals use their cognitive resources more effectively and approach problem-solving with greater efficiency. When someone is able to maintain focus, they are less likely to overlook important details and can retain information more easily.

The capacity for concentration is shaped by environmental and lifestyle factors. Common contributors to poor concentration include disorganized workspaces, insufficient sleep, excessive screen time, noise, stress, inadequate time management, a sedentary routine, and unhealthy eating habits. Alcohol use is another significant factor that impairs concentration.

Trouble concentrating develops as a long-term effect of alcohol because chronic alcohol consumption leads to disorganized thinking and confusion. Research by L.H.M. do Canto-Pereira et al., published in the April 2007 issue of Human and Experimental Toxicology, demonstrated that alcohol intake is linked to deficits in visuospatial attention-the ability to focus on and process objects and stimuli in one's environment. This affects tasks such as making a bed, buttoning a shirt, drawing, building models, or assembling furniture.

Alcohol’s impact on concentration is closely related to the prefrontal cortex, the brain area responsible for attention, memory, personality, and temperament. Very Well Mind notes that the prefrontal cortex, which manages executive function, and the cerebellum, which controls postural stability, are particularly vulnerable to the chronic effects of alcohol. As a result, long-term alcohol use can lead to deficits in executive functioning, impaired problem-solving, multitasking difficulties, and working memory issues. This was also confirmed by R.J. Houston et al. in a January 2014 study in Addictive Behaviors. Alcohol-related nutritional deficiencies may further harm brain function.

Alcohol can alter prefrontal cortex activity by disrupting ion channels, as reported by Science Daily. Ion channels act as gateways for neurons, and the prefrontal cortex’s NMDA receptors are especially sensitive to alcohol. When this region is impaired, so are its associated functions, including concentration and decision-making.

A study by A.G. Salinas et al. in the January 2021 issue of Neuropsychopharmacology indicated that long-term alcohol consumption can negatively affect dopamine neurotransmission. Dopamine not only regulates the brain’s reward system but also plays a critical role in concentration and memory, as explained by the Cleveland Clinic.

Because alcohol impacts multiple neurological pathways in the brain, sustaining attention on tasks becomes difficult, resulting in reduced productivity. M.M. Thorrisen et al. observed a connection between alcohol use and reduced work performance in their July 2019 BMJ Open study.

Heavy drinking may contribute to concentration problems through mental health issues and sleep disturbances. Depression, for example, is associated with cognitive deficits, including reduced attention and concentration, according to a September 2008 paper in Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. Trouble focusing is also a frequent daytime complaint among people with insomnia, as reviewed by J.A. Brownlow et al. in the March 2020 issue of Sleep Medicine Clinics.

3. Mental health issues

Mental health issues, also referred to as mental illnesses or mental health disorders, are conditions that involve changes in mood, emotion, thinking, behavior, or a combination of these factors. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes mental disorders as clinically significant disruptions in cognition, behavior, and the regulation of emotions. Such problems are prevalent, with the WHO reporting that one in eight people worldwide are affected. Mental illnesses often cause distress or impair functioning in social, occupational, or other vital areas.

Mental health issues include a range of disorders such as anxiety conditions (including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)), mood disorders (such as depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder), and psychotic disorders (like schizophrenia and delusional disorder). Additional categories include disruptive behavior and dissocial disorders, personality disorders, and neurodevelopmental conditions.

The Mayo Clinic notes that mental health problems develop due to a combination of genetic and environmental influences. A genetic predisposition increases the risk if blood relatives have mental illness. Environmental stressors, exposure to toxins, inflammation, substance use (including alcohol), and disruptions in brain chemistry also contribute.

The American Psychological Association, in a June 2012 article “The Roots of Mental Illness,” quoted Eric Kandel, MD, who asserted that mental illness is fundamentally biological because all mental processes are rooted in brain processes.

Alcohol is a significant cause of mental health problems, making mental illness a long-term effect of alcohol use, especially for those with alcohol use disorder (AUD).

Excessive alcohol consumption becomes a long-term risk for mental health because it alters brain processes and increases vulnerability to mental illness.

This adverse, chronic impact of alcohol is well-supported by research, including a paper by R. Shivani et al. in the February 2002 issue of Alcohol Research and Health, which found that alcohol misuse can lead to symptoms of anxiety, depression, psychosis, and antisocial behavior during both intoxication and withdrawal. Approximately 80% of individuals with AUD experience mood disturbances and may develop bipolar disorder.

A. Castillo-Carniglia et al., writing in the December 2019 issue of The Lancet Psychiatry, noted that AUD is linked to personality disorders like borderline personality disorder, mainly through behavioral disinhibition. People with impulsive or antisocial personalities typically have a lower threshold for problematic behaviors. They also found that the prevalence of major depressive disorder among those with alcoholism is between 4% and 22%, and the link can be bidirectional: depressive symptoms can increase alcohol use, and drinking can lead to depression through biological and social effects.

AUD can also impact psychological coping mechanisms, raising the risk for anxiety conditions, including PTSD.

A June 2017 study in PLoS One by C. Tembo et al. found that high alcohol intake among university students correlated with poorer mental health and academic performance.

The UK’s Mental Health Foundation explains that alcohol can cause chemical changes in the brain that contribute to depression, anxiety, and anger, regardless of initial mood. Alcohol also slows information processing in the brain, making it more difficult for people to understand their emotions and the potential consequences of their actions. Over time, alcohol depletes neurotransmitters such as serotonin, which are needed for good mental health and the prevention of disorders like depression

A paper published in the January-March 2014 issue of the Indian Journal of Human Genetics, “Neurotransmitters in Alcoholism: A Review of Neurobiological and Genetic Studies,” confirmed that alcohol impacts neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin, and also inhibits glutamate and GABA activity. These effects are associated with symptoms like panic, as described by Drinkaware UK.

Alcohol misuse may also result in symptoms of psychosis, such as delusions and hallucinations, which can occur during acute intoxication, withdrawal, or long-term use. According to H.A. Stankewicz et al. (National Library of Medicine, updated February 2023), increased dopaminergic activity and changes in dopamine receptors may contribute to hallucinations in people with AUD, with serotonin also playing a role. The same source explains that alcohol can create amino acid imbalances, reducing serotonin and increasing dopamine, which can prompt hallucinations.

In summary, alcohol misuse disrupts neurotransmitter systems and brain processes essential for mental health, affecting emotional regulation, stress response, and perception. The relationship between alcohol and mental illness is complex: mental health problems can increase alcohol use as people attempt to self-medicate, and regular heavy drinking can lead to the development of mental health disorders.

4. Alterations in sexual desire and function

Alterations in sexual desire and function refer to variations in interest in sexual activities, sexual performance, and response to sexual stimuli. While hormones such as testosterone and estrogen play significant roles in regulating sexual desire, factors like age, medication, chronic health conditions, and lifestyle choices also influence libido and sexual function. Attitudes, partner availability, and mood further impact sexual desire and performance.

Sexual desire and function can fluctuate for many reasons. For instance, during periods of stress, individuals may experience reduced libido or challenges with sexual performance. Alcohol consumption is another factor that can disrupt sexual desire and function, negatively affecting a person’s sex life.

These changes become a long-term consequence of alcohol because ongoing, heavy alcohol use disrupts hormone balances and impairs physiological processes vital to sexual function.

A hospital-based cross-sectional study by J. Rohilla et al. published in the January-June 2020 issue of the Industrial Psychiatry Journal found that 58.6% of men with alcohol dependence reported sexual dysfunction, with arousal (62.8%), desire (61.4%), and erectile function (70%) most commonly impacted. Similarly, an April-June 2007 study in the Indian Journal of Psychiatry identified premature ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, and reduced sexual desire as prevalent among those with alcohol dependence.

Chronic and heavy alcohol intake lowers libido by reducing testosterone levels-a hormone essential for sex drive, muscle strength, and overall vitality, according to the National Institutes of Health. Low testosterone is linked to erectile dysfunction and diminished libido, as described in an August 2013 World Journal of Men’s Health paper. Chronic alcohol use can also stimulate the conversion of testosterone to estrogen, further depleting testosterone. Healthline notes that long-term alcohol use may damage Leydig cells in the testicles, which are responsible for testosterone production.

Because alcohol creates hormonal imbalances, both sexual desire and functions like achieving an erection can suffer. Alcohol leads to erectile dysfunction both acutely and over the long term.

Alcohol acts as a central nervous system depressant, slowing communication between the brain and the genital area, which reduces penile sensitivity. Its diuretic properties also encourage dehydration, raising angiotensin levels and narrowing blood vessels, which decreases blood flow to the penis and complicates achievement of an erection. Adequate blood flow, aided by nitric oxide (a vasodilator), is crucial for erectile function, but alcohol lowers both testosterone and nitric oxide, further contributing to sexual difficulties.

Long-term alcohol consumption also harms nerves and blood vessels, further impairing erectile function. Chronic intake is associated with high blood pressure, and men with hypertension are at higher risk for erectile dysfunction, as explained by Healthline.

Alcohol use can decrease genital sensitivity, potentially delaying orgasm. It can also affect ejaculatory function, making ejaculation either delayed or premature. This reduced sensation, in combination with possible lowered testosterone, contributes to premature ejaculation, although further research is needed on this topic, as outlined in the January 2022 Journal of Men’s Health.

Heavy drinking affects sexual function in women as well. A systematic review by N. Salari et al. in the May 2023 issue of BMC Women’s Health found that alcohol consumption increases the risk of sexual dysfunction in women by 74%. Research by A. Jenczura et al. in the August 2018 International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health reported that alcohol negatively impacts female sexual desire, arousal, orgasm, lubrication, pain during intercourse, and satisfaction.

5. Impaired immune system

An impaired immune system means the body’s defenses are weakened, reducing its ability to effectively combat viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Individuals with weakened immunity are more prone to infections, which can range from mild to severe or even life-threatening. White blood cells play a central role in immune defense by circulating in the bloodstream and identifying threats. Several factors can decrease immune function, including diabetes, cancer, HIV/AIDS, liver and kidney diseases, autoimmune conditions, certain medications like tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors, and chronic or heavy alcohol use, as noted by Health.com.

Long-term alcohol consumption weakens the immune system by lowering antibody levels, disrupting immune cell function, and disturbing the balance of beneficial gut bacteria critical for healthy immunity. D. Sarkar et al. explained in the February 2015 issue of Alcohol Research: Current Reviews that alcohol impairs both innate immunity (the body’s natural defense system) and adaptive immunity (the acquired system that develops over time). The impact on both systems substantially weakens the body’s ability to fight off disease, increasing susceptibility to infections and inflammatory conditions. Prenatal alcohol exposure can also hinder fetal immune development. Additionally, alcohol-induced inflammation kills beneficial bacteria that typically help protect against infection.

That same publication details how alcohol compromises immune defenses through its effects on the gastrointestinal (GI) system. Around 70% to 80% of immune cells are located in the gut, according to a review by S.P. Wiertsema et al. in the March 2021 issue of Nutrients.

Alcohol alters GI tract structure and disrupts the balance of gut microbiota, interfering with communication between these microbes and the gut’s immune cells. Alcohol consumption can damage epithelial cells, T cells, and neutrophils in the GI tract, undermining the gut barrier and allowing harmful bacteria and products into the bloodstream. This leakage triggers an immune response in the liver, contributing to inflammation and alcoholic liver disease.

Alcohol also negatively affects the lungs and respiratory system. It can impair ciliary function in the airways, making the body less effective at clearing out pathogens. According to D. Sarkar et al., this increases vulnerability to lung conditions such as tuberculosis and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Alcohol disrupts the barrier function of lung epithelial cells and inhibits immune cell activity, allowing viruses and bacteria easier access and further weakening defenses.

When alcohol is consumed, the body redirects resources to metabolize it, since it cannot be stored like fats or carbohydrates. This means immune function is temporarily deprioritized as the liver works to eliminate alcohol. Moreover, alcohol reduces sleep quality, which is essential for immune health. L. Besedovsky et al. (January 2012, Pflugers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology) emphasized the importance of sleep for immune functioning. Poor sleep further compromises immunity-S. Cohen et al. (January 2009, JAMA Internal Medicine) found people averaging less than seven hours of sleep were almost three times more likely to catch a cold than those who slept eight hours.

Women may be especially affected, as heavy drinking can lower estrogen levels and reduce its protective effects on the immune system. This was detailed by J. Romeo et al. in the October 2007 British Journal of Nutrition, showing that alcohol can further impair the immune defenses in women.

6. Insomnia

Insomnia is a widespread sleep disorder marked by difficulty falling asleep or remaining asleep. This condition may be temporary or persistent, and it significantly diminishes daily functioning and quality of life. According to the Sleep Foundation, between 9% and 15% of U.S. adults experience insomnia, with women being 40% more likely than men to face this challenge.

Mayo Clinic states that insomnia can be a primary disorder or develop secondarily due to other influences. It may arise independently or from factors like stress, disruptive sleep habits, and significant life events. Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD may contribute, as can certain medications for depression, blood pressure, or asthma. Additional causes include medical illnesses (such as cancer, diabetes, chronic pain, heart disease, Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s), sleep disorders (like restless leg syndrome), and the use of caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol. If left unmanaged, insomnia can cause work or school performance problems, increase the risk of accidents, and contribute to further substance abuse or the development of chronic diseases, including heart conditions.

A paper by S. He et al. in the April 2019 issue of Current Opinion in Psychology found that alcohol disrupts sleep through various mechanisms and that its relationship with sleep continuity disturbance is bidirectional.

Insomnia appears as a long-term effect of alcohol because moderate doses may reduce the duration of REM sleep, especially during the latter part of the night. REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is the stage associated with intense brain activity and vivid dreams. Heavy alcohol use is linked to longer times needed to fall asleep, a lower percentage of time spent asleep in bed, and more time awake after initially falling asleep. Among individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD), rates of insomnia range from 36% to 91%, compared to roughly 10% in the general population. The same study reported that heavy drinking can both predict future insomnia and be triggered by existing insomnia. Insomnia is present in all phases of AUD: active drinking, acute withdrawal, and recovery.

Alcohol and AUD are associated with abnormalities in circadian rhythms. For example, a comparative study by A.J. Brager et al. (July 2010, Alcoholism, Clinical, and Experimental Research) demonstrated that chronic alcohol use affects light- and non-light-related circadian phase adjustments. T. Danel et al. (July 2001, American Journal of Physiology, Regulatory, Integrative, and Comparative Physiology) reported that alcohol flattens the normal diurnal (daily) core body temperature rhythm, with nighttime alcohol consumption causing hyperthermia and reducing normal circadian amplitude by 43%, which may contribute to sleep problems.

Consumption of alcohol also lowers salivary melatonin levels, a hormone that regulates sleep, as T.L. Rupp et al. reported in the March 2007 issue of Chronobiology International. In their study, melatonin levels were 15% and 19% lower at 140 and 190 minutes after moderate alcohol intake compared to placebo, and these effects could be stronger in heavy drinkers.

The connection between alcohol and short sleep duration (SSD) is supported by research. S. Chakravorty et al. in the November 2016 issue of Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research reported that alcohol dependence raises the risk of short sleep duration (fewer than seven hours nightly, per CDC). Alcohol dependence is also linked to other sleep disturbances, such as obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and sleep-related movement disorders, both of which may cause insomnia.

The association between alcohol and OSA was confirmed by B.P. Kolla et al. in their meta-analysis (December 2018, Sleep Medicine Reviews), which found that alcohol worsens sleep-related breathing events, especially in people with a history of snoring or OSA. Alcohol can both contribute to and exacerbate OSA.

Rates of insomnia in people with AUD decline when they stop drinking, but ongoing insomnia can raise the risk of relapse. Lifestyle improvements, including stopping alcohol use, can help resolve insomnia, as shown by C. Janson et al. in a June 2001 Sleep study.

In summary, alcohol is a central nervous system depressant that disrupts sleep cycles. While some may use alcohol to fall asleep faster, this approach ultimately lowers sleep quality and can increase the risk of alcohol dependence. The relationship between alcohol and insomnia is two-way, but abstaining from alcohol can improve sleep quality.

7. Fluctuations in appetite and weight

Fluctuations in appetite and weight refer to variations in the amount of food consumed and changes in body weight. It’s important to distinguish between appetite and hunger: hunger is a physiological response to the body’s need for energy, while appetite is the desire to eat, influenced by both biological and environmental or emotional factors.

Appetite and weight do not remain constant and are impacted by a range of influences. According to Medical News Today, appetite is affected by diet, mental health, pregnancy, medications (including those for blood pressure, diabetes, epilepsy, antipsychotics, and antidepressants), and health conditions like infections, thyroid disorders, cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and kidney disease. Weight can be influenced by factors such as genetics, developmental determinants, gender, age, physical activity, diet, as well as social and environmental circumstances, as described in Weight Management: State of the Science and Opportunities for Military Programs (National Academies Press, 2004).

Alcohol affects both appetite and weight. Research led by S.J. Caton et al. in the March 2004 issue of Physiology and Behavior found that above certain thresholds, alcohol can stimulate appetite, partly due to increased subjective hunger. When alcohol is consumed, individuals tend not to reduce their intake during subsequent meals, leading to a positive energy balance (consuming more calories than are burned). Caton's later review (March 2015, Current Obesity Reports) suggested that alcohol increases energy intake in dieters due to reduced restraint or disinhibition, making it harder to resist temptation.

Alcohol can both increase and decrease appetite and food intake. Dr. Anna Kokavec (September 2008, Appetite) noted that long-term alcohol use may reduce overall food consumption, though it can also trigger episodes of overeating, particularly among impulsive individuals (C.A. Kase et al., April 2016, Appetite).

Alcohol’s effects on appetite are complex. As Ada McVean, B.Sc., at McGill University explained in December 2020, alcohol can reduce feelings of satiety after eating by inhibiting leptin, the hormone that signals fullness, and also reduce ghrelin, which signals hunger. Alcoholic drinks are calorie-dense, but these calories don’t produce the same feeling of fullness as food, often resulting in an overall increase in calorie intake and subsequent weight gain.

Since alcohol can alter appetite, it also impacts weight. It has been linked to weight gain and increased risk of obesity. A January 2015 review in Current Obesity Reports found that the risk of obesity is up to 70% higher in heavy drinkers compared to light drinkers, with binge drinking tied to greater risk and larger waist circumference. Light to moderate drinking appears to pose less risk for obesity, but frequent heavy drinking increases the chance of weight gain.

Alcohol influences weight by several mechanisms. Martin R. Yeomans (April 2010, Physiology and Behavior) explained that calories from alcohol are added to those from food, increasing the risk of obesity among heavy and binge drinkers. Alcohol not only adds calories, but may also prompt increased food intake, especially of high-fat, salty, or greasy foods (Better Health Channel, Australia). It may alter how the brain perceives appetite and can disrupt the regulation of satiety and hunger hormones. Alcohol can impact serotonergic, GABAergic, and opioid pathways related to appetite (Current Obesity Reports, March 2015), and may inhibit fat oxidation, resulting in increased fat storage, especially around the abdomen (Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences, March 2005).

Further, C. Ramos-Vela et al. (January–December 2022, Journal of Primary Care and Community Health) identified alcohol consumption as a predictor of higher BMI and chronic illnesses.

Overall, alcohol’s effect on appetite and weight is multifaceted, including both increased caloric consumption and preference for unhealthy foods. Reducing alcohol intake can help with weight management, which is crucial since being overweight or obese raises the risk of chronic diseases and lowers quality of life.

8. Liver disease

Liver disease encompasses conditions that affect the liver-the largest solid organ in the body-responsible for regulating blood chemicals and filtering toxins. The liver also processes most of the alcohol consumed. Liver conditions include hepatitis A, B, and C, fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. The American Liver Foundation reports that over 100 million people in the United States have some type of liver disease, with 4.5 million officially diagnosed and many more unaware of their condition. If not addressed, liver disease can progress to liver failure or cancer.

According to Mayo Clinic, liver disease can result from infections, immune abnormalities, genetics, fat build-up, and chronic alcohol misuse. Other risk factors include type 2 diabetes, obesity, family history, exposure to toxins, drug use with shared needles, and having tattoos or body piercings.

Liver disease becomes a long-term consequence of alcohol use because, as explained by NHS Inform (UK), each time the liver metabolizes alcohol, some liver cells are killed. While the liver can regenerate cells, persistent alcohol misuse impairs this ability, leading to severe, irreversible damage. Alcohol-related liver disease (ARLD) develops in three stages: alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis. The first stage involves fat buildup in the liver, the second is inflammation caused by alcohol, and the third is formation of scar tissue (cirrhosis) that impairs liver function.

Alcohol is difficult for the liver to break down, causing injury, swelling, and inflammation that can seriously affect liver health. Alcohol consumption is the leading cause of liver disease in the U.S., as noted by the National Library of Medicine. Their October 2022 post explains that consistently consuming 30g to 50g of alcohol daily for over five years may lead to ARLD. Fatty liver disease can develop in up to 90% of those drinking more than 60g of alcohol a day, while cirrhosis affects about 30% of those with prolonged intake above 40g a day.

Alcohol metabolism increases NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide + hydrogen) and lowers NAD in the body. The resulting production of glycerol phosphate, when combined with fatty acids, forms triglycerides that accumulate in the liver, leading to fatty liver disease. Continued alcohol intake also activates the immune system, with interleukins and neutrophils attacking liver cells (hepatocytes), resulting in hepatitis and, eventually, in scarring and cirrhosis.

Risk factors for alcohol-related liver disease include the type and quantity of alcohol, drinking patterns, female sex, older age, genetics, poor diet, substance abuse, obesity, smoking, and viral infections, as described by N.A. Osna et al. in Alcohol Research: Current Reviews (February 2017). A systematic review by M. Roerecke et al. in the October 2020 American Journal of Gastroenterology found that women may have a higher risk of cirrhosis, though statistical differences were not clearly established.

Alcohol induces liver damage through several mechanisms, including the production of free radicals, which cause oxidative stress and damage cell membranes. Chronic drinking increases free radical production during alcohol breakdown, especially via the enzyme CYP2E1, leading to lipid peroxidation and further cell injury. Alcohol also weakens antioxidant defenses and creates hypoxia (low oxygen) in liver tissue, compounding damage and inducing inflammation.

Alcoholic fatty liver disease is reversible if alcohol consumption stops for at least two weeks. Early alcoholic hepatitis may also be reversible with permanent abstinence, but severe hepatitis is life-threatening and cirrhosis is not reversible, though it can be managed to improve quality of life. It is essential for individuals with alcohol-related liver disease to stop drinking to prevent further harm.

9. Heart disease

Heart disease encompasses a range of conditions affecting the heart, including coronary artery disease (CAD), irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias), congenital heart defects, heart valve problems, and diseases of the heart muscle. The condition is highly prevalent; according to the CDC, about 1 in 20 U.S. adults aged 20 and older (approximately 5%) have CAD, and around 805,000 people experience a heart attack each year.

Mayo Clinic lists risk factors for heart disease as age, male gender, family history, smoking, unhealthy diet, high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, lack of physical activity, stress, and poor dental health.

Heart disease develops as a long-term consequence of alcohol use for several reasons. Excessive alcohol consumption can result in high blood pressure, heart failure, and stroke, according to Johns Hopkins Medicine. Drinking large amounts of alcohol can cause cardiomyopathy, a disease that impairs the heart’s ability to pump effectively. Alcohol also increases the risk for weight gain and obesity, both of which are major contributors to cardiovascular disease.

Research presented at Heart Failure 2022 by the European Society of Cardiology showed that consuming over 70g of alcohol weekly accelerates progression from pre-heart failure to symptomatic heart failure, with no observed heart health benefit even at low levels of intake. Findings published by K.J. Biddinger et al. in JAMA Network Open support this, showing any level of alcohol consumption is linked to increased cardiovascular risk; higher consumption leads to more pronounced risk.

Heavy alcohol intake is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, including higher mortality rates, as reviewed by S. Goel et al. in the March 2018 issue of Current Cardiology Reports.

A February 2017 review in Alcohol Research: Current Reviews noted that excessive drinking causes temporary elevations in blood pressure and increases risk for hypertension. Alcohol promotes high blood pressure by damaging vascular cells, encouraging plaque accumulation, impairing vascular function, and causing hormonal imbalances, oxidative stress, and irregularities in calcium handling and heart rate.

A review in the March 2001 Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias confirmed that heavy alcohol consumption is linked to hypertension, arrhythmias, and coronary occlusions (blockages in heart arteries). Alcohol-induced arrhythmia can occur when alcohol disrupts the heart’s conduction system, as reported in an August 2013 paper by D. Tonelo et al. in Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia.

Hypertension due to alcohol is significant as persistent high blood pressure damages arteries-narrowing them and promoting plaque buildup, which leads to atherosclerosis. Hardened arteries increase the risk of blood clots, heart attacks, and strokes. A meta-analysis by K. Reynolds et al. in a February 2003 JAMA article confirmed that heavy alcohol use raises stroke risk.

In a September 2019 review in Addiction, the presumed cardiovascular benefits of alcohol are challenged, emphasizing that risks outweigh potential positives. The risk of premature death rises with any daily alcohol intake above 10g. Regular drinking raises blood pressure and the toxic metabolites of alcohol damage cardiac muscle cells. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy-a change in heart muscle structure related to chronic drinking-accounts for a large share of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy (where the heart muscle weakens and enlarges). There is no safe alcohol level for those with this condition; abstinence is necessary.

Alcoholic cardiomyopathy causes structural changes in the heart, leading to heart failure. The Cleveland Clinic describes this as the heart muscle enlarging and stretching, weakening its pumping ability. Both the left and right ventricles are especially affected by the changes from chronic heavy or binge drinking.

In summary, alcohol increases the risk of heart disease by elevating blood pressure and oxidative stress, promoting atherosclerosis, and compromising heart function. Indirectly, alcohol also contributes to heart disease by increasing the risk of weight gain and related health issues.

10. Cancer disease

Cancer refers to a condition where certain cells in the body grow and multiply uncontrollably, with the potential to invade surrounding tissues and spread (metastasize) to distant organs. Metastasis is a primary cause of cancer-related deaths, according to the World Health Organization, which estimates that cancer is responsible for almost 10 million deaths annually, or one in six deaths worldwide.

In the U.S., the American Cancer Society projects approximately 1,958,310 new cancer cases and 609,820 cancer deaths in 2023, as reported by R.L. Siegel et al. (CA: a Cancer Journal for Clinicians, January 2023). Cancer can develop in many organs and tissues, including the prostate, breast, bladder, colon and rectum, liver, kidney, lung, pancreas, thyroid, blood (such as leukemia), and skin. Mayo Clinic identifies DNA mutations in cells-caused by hereditary factors or influenced by lifestyle choices and exposures such as obesity, tobacco use, chronic inflammation, inactivity, certain viruses, and excessive alcohol use-as the root cause of cancer.

The CDC states that consuming three or more alcoholic drinks daily increases the risk of cancers of the pancreas and stomach. Alcohol consumption also raises the likelihood of developing prostate and other cancers. The risk appears to be dose-dependent, meaning the more alcohol consumed, the higher the cancer risk. Cancer is considered a long-term effect of alcohol, as explained by the CDC, primarily due to the body’s conversion of alcohol into acetaldehyde-a chemical capable of damaging DNA and interfering with its repair.

According to the National Cancer Institute, even consuming up to one alcoholic beverage daily can elevate cancer risk, and binge drinking poses additional risk. Nearly 3.5% (about 19,500) of all cancer deaths are attributed to alcohol.

Alcohol is linked to several types of cancer, including head and neck cancers (oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx), especially in individuals who also use tobacco. It significantly increases the risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma-the most common form of esophageal cancer-particularly in individuals with a genetic deficiency in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes.

Heavy alcohol consumption also doubles the risk of several liver cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (the most common primary liver cancer) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (cancer of the intrahepatic bile ducts).

Additionally, the risk of breast cancer increases with higher alcohol intake. There is also a 1.2- to 1.5-fold increased risk for colorectal cancers with moderate to heavy drinking. Moreover, alcohol use is associated with a higher incidence of second primary cancers-meaning new cancers in individuals who previously had cancer.

Alcohol raises cancer risk by several mechanisms beyond acetaldehyde production. It can induce oxidative stress, damaging DNA, proteins, and lipids. Alcohol also impairs the absorption and metabolism of nutrients (including vitamins A, C, D, E, carotenoids, and B-complex vitamins) that protect against cancer. Elevated estrogen levels from alcohol consumption can increase the risk of breast cancer, and certain alcoholic beverages may contain carcinogens (such as asbestos fibers, nitrosamines, hydrocarbons, and phenols) from production or fermentation processes.

Despite these risks, public awareness of the alcohol-cancer link remains low. Research by A.B. Seidenberg et al., published in February 2022 in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, found that fewer than one-third of Americans recognized that alcohol increases cancer risk. Awareness was correlated with support for adding warning labels or restricting alcohol advertising.

11. Brain damage

Brain damage refers to harm to brain tissue that results from injury, infection, bleeding within the skull, or a lack of oxygen. Such damage can lead to a wide range of functional or behavioral difficulties, which may vary in severity from mild to severe. According to Mayo Clinic, children, young adults, older adults, and males across all age groups are especially vulnerable to brain injury. Alcohol is a significant contributor to brain damage as well.

Alcohol-related brain damage develops as a long-term effect because chronic heavy drinking can lead to shrinkage of the brain and damage the white matter-the fibers responsible for transmitting information between brain cells (gray matter). This was highlighted in the October 2004 Alcohol Alert from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

Excessive, long-term alcohol intake can cause Alcohol-Related Brain Damage (ARBD), which is a syndrome marked by progressive decline in memory and thinking abilities. The extent of ARBD or alcohol-related brain injury (ARBI) can range from mild cognitive impairment to severe dementia. One specific form is Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, an alcohol-related dementia that impairs daily functioning.

The Alzheimer’s Society UK explains that ARBD can raise the risk of Alzheimer’s disease since long-term alcohol toxicity leads to the death of brain cells and brain shrinkage, resulting in fewer cells to perform essential tasks. Alcohol also damages blood vessels in the brain, increasing hypertension and stroke risk, both of which can lead to significant impairments. In addition, alcohol interferes with thiamine (vitamin B1) absorption, a vital nutrient for healthy brain function; deficiency in thiamine can cause Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

The risk of head injuries also rises with alcohol use because intoxication impairs coordination and balance, increasing the odds of falls and traumatic brain injury.

A February 2003 review in Alcohol Research and Health identified the cerebral cortex and subcortical regions-including the limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain-as particularly susceptible to alcohol-related damage. These areas regulate memory, reasoning, emotion, language, learning, hormone production, bodily functions, attention, and arousal.

Dr. Marlene Oscar-Berman and Dr. Ksenija Marinkovic noted that the effects of alcohol on the brain depend on several factors: the amount consumed, age of onset, duration of drinking, current age, gender, educational background, family history, genetics, general health, and even prenatal exposure to alcohol.

Research by D. Nutt et al. (Nutrients, November 2021) confirmed that alcohol dependence results in widespread loss of gray matter volume in cortical and subcortical regions. Although this shrinkage can partially reverse with abstinence, long-term alcohol use causes neurotoxicity through metabolite buildup, thiamine deficiency, and neuroinflammation. These processes lead to lasting impairments in reward processing, greater impulsivity, emotional regulation problems, and disruptions to the default-mode network (DMN), which is involved in self-awareness, negative emotions, and rumination. Alcohol may reduce responsiveness to external rewards and increase fixation on alcohol-related triggers.

In summary, alcohol disrupts the structure and function of multiple brain areas, causing memory impairment, contributing to dementia such as Alzheimer’s disease, and raising the risk of accidents that can result in further brain injury.

12. Inflammation of the pancreas

Inflammation of the pancreas, known as pancreatitis, refers to redness and swelling of the pancreas, an organ and gland responsible for producing digestive enzymes and the hormone insulin, which regulates blood sugar. Pancreatitis can be either acute or chronic. According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, each year about 275,000 hospital cases are due to acute pancreatitis, and 86,000 are related to chronic pancreatitis.

Pancreatitis develops when digestive enzymes activate inside the pancreas rather than in the intestines, leading to irritation and inflammation of pancreatic cells, as explained by Mayo Clinic. Multiple episodes of acute pancreatitis may result in chronic pancreatitis. Common causes include gallstones, high triglycerides, elevated calcium, abdominal surgery, cystic fibrosis, infection, abdominal injury, trauma, obesity, and alcohol use. Without treatment, pancreatitis can cause complications such as kidney failure, respiratory problems, diabetes, malnutrition, and pancreatic cancer.

Alcohol causes long-term inflammation of the pancreas because it increases the viscosity of pancreatic secretions, which can block small ducts and result in the formation of calculi (stones), according to a resource by A. Klochkov et al. on the National Library of Medicine (updated February 2023). This blockage leads to fibrosis and ongoing inflammation, causing the loss of different pancreatic cell types. Alcohol can also cause premature activation of trypsinogen and other enzymes within the pancreas, resulting in autodigestion of pancreatic tissue and intensified inflammation.

Chronic alcohol use accounts for 17% to 25% of acute pancreatitis cases globally, making it the second most frequent cause after gallstones. Regarding chronic pancreatitis, alcohol is linked to 40% to 70% of cases and also increases the risk of pancreatic cancer. Chronic pancreatic damage may already exist when an episode of acute pancreatitis occurs.

A December 2006 article in the World Journal of Gastroenterology, “Pathophysiology of Alcoholic Pancreatitis: an Overview,” describes alcohol-induced pancreatitis as painful and potentially fatal. Smoking can work together with alcohol to worsen pancreatitis, and genetics may also affect susceptibility. Alcohol exposure accelerates pancreatic necrosis and makes the tissue more sensitive to damage from bacterial toxins (LPS) due to an increased tendency toward necrotic rather than apoptotic cell death. Chronic alcoholics generally show higher LPS levels, further aggravating pancreatic injury.

Alcohol may also cause pancreatitis via oxidative stress and hypoxia, both of which harm cells and reduce their ability to neutralize free radicals, leading to tissue and functional impairment. Additional risk factors in alcoholic individuals include high-fat diets and infections, as noted by D.L. Clemens et al. (World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology, February 2016).

Genetic mutations can also contribute. M. Zorniak et al. reported (Visceral Medicine, June 2020) that mutations in the CFTR gene, which regulates fluid secretion in pancreatic ducts, are associated with chronic and acute pancreatitis. Alcohol use lowers CFTR gene activity, worsening pancreatic function.

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What are the complications of alcohol?

Complications of alcohol refer to the potentially severe outcomes that result from heavy or chronic alcohol use. The CDC highlights that long-term alcohol consumption can cause cardiovascular complications such as high blood pressure, stroke, and heart disease. Liver disease and digestive problems are also common, while cancer-including breast, oral, throat, esophageal, liver, rectal, and colon cancers-ranks among the most serious consequences. Alcohol-induced immune system suppression leads to increased illness and vulnerability to infections.

Alcohol can impair cognitive functions, leading to learning and memory issues that negatively affect work or academic performance. Chronic users may experience symptoms resembling dementia.

According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), heavy alcohol use is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, contributing to more than five million annual emergency department visits in the U.S. Alcohol is implicated in over 200 health conditions, underscoring its risks and severity.

The complications of alcohol are dose-dependent-the more consumed, the higher the risk and severity of complications. In addition to the primary health problems, alcohol use can disrupt immune signaling, delay wound healing, and disturb the entire endocrine system. For people with diabetes, alcohol can disrupt blood glucose control and accelerate diabetes-related nerve and cardiovascular complications. In those without diabetes, alcohol can increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Alcohol abuse can also cause anemia, leucopenia (low white blood cell count), thrombocytopenia (reduced platelet count), and macrocytosis (enlarged red blood cells). For the musculoskeletal system, chronic alcohol consumption leads to skeletal muscle weakness, higher fracture risk, and gout.

Alcohol’s impact on the central nervous system results in deficits in cognitive abilities, the onset or worsening of dementia, reduction in brain volume, and partially reversible injuries. It can also harm the peripheral nervous system, leading to postural hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias, erectile dysfunction, and diarrhea. Alcohol may worsen chronic pain, further reducing quality of life.

Individuals who consume large amounts of alcohol face an increased risk of surgical complications, including the need for higher doses of anesthesia.

The ramifications of alcohol extend beyond physical health to cause social, economic, and interpersonal challenges. People with alcohol use disorder (AUD) may neglect responsibilities, face unemployment or financial hardship, and experience strained or broken relationships due to their focus on drinking. Workplace performance can decline, resulting in incomplete tasks or failure to meet expectations

Ultimately, one of the most significant complications of heavy drinking is the development of alcohol dependence and AUD. According to NIAAA, about 29.5 million people in the U.S. ages 12 and older-10.6% of this population-had AUD in the past year (2021 data).

In what ways does alcohol impact physical health?

Alcohol impacts the body primarily through its depressant effects. Specifically, alcohol interacts with the brain, altering how it functions, processes information, and manages bodily activities such as digestion. Its influence on the brain’s communication pathways can lead to shifts in mood and behavior, making it challenging to think clearly, move in a coordinated way, or speak without slurring.

Heavy alcohol consumption may cause the heartbeat to become irregular, as alcohol can disrupt heart and blood vessel function, leading to arrhythmias. Additionally, alcohol disturbs the circadian rhythm, negatively affecting sleep patterns and contributing to insomnia. Even if someone falls asleep quickly after drinking, they may wake up during the night and struggle to return to sleep because the body continues to metabolize alcohol, resulting in restless sleep throughout the night.

The digestive system is also affected by alcohol, which acts as an irritant and can increase acid production. This often leads to nausea and vomiting. Prolonged or excessive use may cause gastritis, an inflammation of the stomach lining.

Alcohol’s effects on the gastrointestinal tract can also cause digestive issues like diarrhea. Some people may experience heartburn because alcohol relaxes the muscles that prevent stomach acid from entering the esophagus.

Alcohol influences nearly every organ in the body. Its combination of diuretic action and effects on the kidneys leads to more frequent urination, even at low levels of intake. Continued drinking and urination can result in dehydration, which is linked to headaches. Headaches are also caused by alcohol’s property of dilating blood vessels in the brain and body. When blood vessels dilate, more blood flows to the skin, causing the flushed or “blushing” appearance often seen in people who have been drinking.

Alcohol can also impact vision and hearing. Individuals under the influence might notice hearing changes and difficulty distinguishing color contrasts with their vision.

While alcohol’s impact on the body depends on how much is consumed, no level of drinking is considered completely safe or risk-free. Alcohol can impair brain function and slow reaction time, raising the risk of accidents while driving or operating machinery. For these reasons, anyone who drinks alcohol should be aware of its risks and avoid activities that require coordination, alertness, or balance after drinking.

What are the treatments available for alcohol addiction?

The treatments available for alcohol addiction are tailored to each individual’s needs. As outlined by Mayo Clinic, treatment options for alcohol addiction include brief interventions, residential or inpatient programs, and outpatient programs.

The initial stage of treatment for alcohol addiction or alcohol use disorder (AUD) is detoxification and withdrawal. Detox involves the sudden cessation of alcohol intake in individuals with AUD. During withdrawal, people experience symptoms because of disruptions in the neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA. Normally, alcohol boosts GABA and suppresses glutamate. Prolonged heavy drinking makes it difficult to maintain this balance; as a result, individuals consume more alcohol to maintain feelings of calm or relaxation. When alcohol use stops, there is excessive glutamate and insufficient GABA, leading to withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety, restlessness, tremors, high blood pressure, and seizures, according to Very Well Mind. Medical supervision is required during detox, which typically lasts two to seven days. Severe cases may require medications like naltrexone or acamprosate to help reduce cravings and alleviate withdrawal symptoms.

For moderate to severe alcohol addiction, inpatient or residential programs are effective. These require patients to stay at a rehabilitation facility for a period, such as 60 or 90 days. During their stay, patients participate in individual and group therapy sessions and learn skills to prevent relapse and manage triggers.

Outpatient programs are suitable for those with mild to moderate addiction or for individuals who have completed inpatient treatment and need ongoing support. Outpatient programs allow patients to live at home and maintain employment while regularly attending therapy sessions.

Behavioral therapies are central to both inpatient and outpatient treatment approaches. Their primary goal is to motivate and support patients in changing their behavior and refraining from alcohol use. Key behavioral therapy techniques include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), contingency management, support groups, and 12-step programs.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps individuals identify and replace irrational or unrealistic thoughts with more rational alternatives. CBT is based on the understanding that thought patterns influence emotions and behaviors. Through CBT, people with alcohol addiction learn skills to achieve and sustain sobriety. Evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for alcohol addiction. For example, a meta-analysis by M. Magill et al. (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, December 2019) showed that CBT was significantly more effective than no treatment or minimal intervention. Another study (Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, February 2023) confirmed CBT as a proven intervention for treating AUD.

Contingency management (CM) is a behavioral therapy where individuals receive rewards for demonstrating positive behavioral changes. As described by Prof. Nancy M. Petry (The Psychiatrist, May 2011), CM operates on the principle that behaviors followed by reinforcement are more likely to be repeated. In AUD treatment, positive behaviors like abstinence are rewarded (such as with vouchers for retail goods), while undesired behaviors (like drinking) result in loss of rewards or negative consequences, such as reports to authorities for those on parole. Written contracts may detail expected behaviors, monitoring frequency, and both rewards and consequences. CM has been associated with increased abstinence and reduced drinking, as reported by S.M. McPherson et al. (Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, August 2018).

Support groups bring together individuals facing similar struggles to offer mutual support, share experiences, and encourage each other in recovery. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is the most well-known support group, offering both group sessions and “sober support” sponsorship, where experienced members help newer ones to stay accountable.

The 12-step program, developed by AA, guides members through steps designed to help achieve and maintain sobriety. The first step is admitting the problem, followed by actions such as taking responsibility for past behavior, seeking forgiveness, trusting in support, and building faith. According to Very Well Mind, these steps form a comprehensive framework for recovery.

Evidence indicates that AA and 12-step programs result in greater continuous abstinence and remission compared to other approaches. They also help reduce healthcare costs and improve outcomes for people with AUD (J.F. Kelly et al., Alcohol and Alcoholism, Nov 2020). These programs promote treatment acceptance and adherence, as found by M. Ferri et al. (The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, July 2006).

How much time is needed for alcohol to fully leave the body?

The effects of alcohol typically remain in the body for about 24 hours, according to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, or up to 25 hours as noted by Cleveland Clinic. The half-life of alcohol-the time required for the body to eliminate half of the substance-is four to five hours. Because it takes about five half-lives to fully clear a substance, it may take up to 25 hours for alcohol to be completely eliminated from the system, as Cleveland Clinic explains.

Several factors influence how quickly alcohol is eliminated from the body. These include gender (females generally process alcohol faster than males), age (teens, young adults, and older adults metabolize alcohol more slowly), the presence of food in the stomach, metabolic rate, exercise, the time of day alcohol is consumed, and the presence of alcoholism. According to Healthline, alcohol is metabolized more quickly later in the day and during exercise, while heavy drinking tends to increase elimination rates and advanced liver disease slows it down. Other factors such as the amount of alcohol consumed, body weight, tolerance, and overall health also play a role. Diseases affecting the liver, kidneys, or stomach can further slow the body's ability to process alcohol.

After drinking, alcohol generally reaches its peak level in the blood within 60 to 90 minutes, after which the body begins to break it down. On average, the body processes and eliminates one standard drink per hour, as Dr. Valerie Anne Jones reported for GoodRx Health in August 2021. Alcohol can remain in the body longer than the duration of noticeable intoxication. For detection, a breathalyzer test can identify alcohol for up to 24 hours, urine for up to five days, blood for up to 12 hours, saliva for up to 24-48 hours, and hair for up to 90 days.

Can medical approaches be used to address alcoholism?

Yes, alcoholism can be treated medically, but successful recovery and relapse prevention require a comprehensive treatment program. According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)’s Effective Health Care Program, medications are used alongside talk therapy and support groups to address alcohol use disorder (AUD). Medications are not standalone treatments but are part of a broader approach. AHRQ identifies several medications for AUD management: acamprosate (Campral), which helps rebalance brain chemicals disrupted by heavy drinking; disulfiram (Antabuse), which produces unpleasant symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and headache if alcohol is consumed; naltrexone (Revia, Vivitrol), which reduces alcohol cravings; and topiramate (Topamax, Qudexy XR, Trokendi XR), which stabilizes brain chemistry and electrical activity.

The primary goal of medications in AUD treatment is to restore normal brain function, alleviate withdrawal symptoms, and lower relapse risk-thereby enhancing engagement in behavioral therapies. A June 2021 article, Alcohol Use Disorder: The Role of Medication in Recovery (Alcohol Research: Current Reviews), explains that behavioral therapies improve medication effectiveness by changing attitudes and behaviors related to alcohol use. Talk therapy, for example, helps patients develop healthy skills that support long-term recovery.

Despite their effectiveness, medication usage among individuals with AUD remains low. A June 2021 study by B. Han et al. (JAMA Psychiatry) found that while 5.6% of U.S. adults (about 14.1 million people) had AUD in the past year, only 7.3% received any treatment, and just 1.6% reported using medications for AUD-totaling approximately 223,000 individuals. Those using medications were more likely to have accessed mental health services and reported three or more emergency room visits, indicating that medication use may correlate with more severe AUD. The study highlights the urgent need to improve access to and utilization of medications as a critical component of effective AUD treatment, as emphasized by the National Institutes of Health.

Is inpatient rehabilitation effective for treating alcohol dependence?

Yes, inpatient rehab alcohol treatment is effective for individuals with alcohol use disorder. Inpatient rehab offers the highest level of support, making it especially suitable for those with moderate to severe addiction. People enrolled in inpatient programs are more likely to complete the full course of treatment compared to those in outpatient programs, as highlighted in the Rapid Response Report "Inpatient and Outpatient Treatment Programs for Substance Use Disorder: A Review of Clinical Effectiveness and Guidelines" published by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (November 2017).

Research supports the benefits of longer and more structured care. An observational cohort study from England by B. Eastwood et al. (Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, May 2018) found that a longer duration of alcoholism treatment led to better outcomes: 59% of patients successfully completed treatment within 12 months and did not require further treatment within the next six months. Positive outcomes for inpatient withdrawal were linked to factors like older age, being employed, and participating in community-based treatment before and after inpatient care. Housing instability was associated with poorer outcomes. Success in residential rehabilitation was also connected to paid employment, longer treatment duration, follow-up community care, and supportive referrals.

In a comparative study by L. Greenfield et al. (American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, August 2004), women who participated in substance abuse treatment for at least six months had success rates of 68% to 71%. Shorter treatment durations were tied to lower success rates, emphasizing that structured, long-term inpatient programs are effective at supporting sobriety. This conclusion was further affirmed by a systematic review by D. de Andrade et al. (Drug and Alcohol Dependence, August 2019), which found residential treatment improved outcomes across various substance use and life domains.

Inpatient programs are particularly valuable for individuals with severe alcohol use disorder, offering essential structure, therapeutic support, and medical supervision to safely manage withdrawal and promote lasting recovery.

Is alcohol good for health?

No, alcohol is not generally considered good for health. While some earlier studies suggested that moderate alcohol consumption, such as a glass of red wine, might offer cardiovascular benefits, more recent and comprehensive research has found that even small amounts of alcohol can increase health risks, including cancer, liver disease, and brain damage. According to the World Health Organization and various public health bodies, there is no safe level of alcohol consumption that can be considered entirely risk-free.

Alcohol affects nearly every organ in the body and can disrupt sleep, impair cognitive function, and weaken the immune system. Long-term use, even at moderate levels, is associated with increased risk of high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, digestive issues, and mental health problems. While the perceived benefits of alcohol may apply to very specific cases and contexts, the overall scientific consensus is that the risks outweigh any potential advantages for most people.